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[EMNLP 2024] A Peek into Token Bias: Large Language Models Are Not Yet Genuine Reasoners

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## [EMNLP 2024] This is the official implementation of the paper ["A Peek into Token Bias: Large Language Models Are Not Yet Genuine Reasoners"](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2406.11050) in PyTorch.

[![Arxiv](https://img.shields.io/badge/ArXiv-Full_Paper-B31B1B)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.11050)
[![Google Scholar](https://img.shields.io/badge/Google_Scholar-Cite_Our_Paper-4085F4)](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C39&q=A+Peek+into+Token+Bias%3A+Large+Language+Models+Are+Not+Yet+Genuine+Reasoners&btnG=)
[![Related Work](https://img.shields.io/badge/Github-Awesome_LLM_Reasoning-97CA00)](https://github.com/atfortes/Awesome-LLM-Reasoning)

👩‍🏫**10-11-2024** We presented the work at the [Wharton AI & Analytics Initiative](https://ai-analytics.wharton.upenn.edu)'s Research & Education Symposium.

🍎**10-07-2024** We support the findings in Apple's trending paper [GSM-Symbolic: Understanding the Limitations of Mathematical Reasoning in Large Language Models](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2410.05229v1), which references our work to question the reasoning capabilities of LLMs, while generalizing mathematical reasoning problems into symbolic templates. Definitely worth checking out both!

🚀**News! 09-21-2024** A short version of this work has been accepted to the [EMNLP 2024 GenBench Workshop](https://genbench.org/workshop/).

🚀**News! 09-20-2024** The full paper has been accepted to the **[EMNLP 2024 Main](https://2024.emnlp.org)** 🌴.

👩‍🏫**09-20-2024** We presented the work at the Penn [ASSET & Warren Center](https://asset.seas.upenn.edu/events/asset-warren-center-ai-research-mixer/) research mixer.

🐦**07-08-2024**  We released a short video on [Twitter](https://x.com/laurenbjiang/status/1810447701785653605). Enjoy!

🚀**06-17-2024** A short version of this work has been accepted to the [ICML 2024 Workshop on LLMs and Cognition](https://llm-cognition.github.io).

📖**06-16-2024** We released the [paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.11050) on ArXiv.

## Introduction
Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in understanding and generating human-like text, but there is ongoing debate about whether LLMs possess **genuine reasoning capabilities**. This work reconceptualizes the evaluation of LLM's reasoning capabilities into a general and rigorous **testing framework** with **statistical guarantee**.

We say that an LLM is subject to **token bias** in a reasoning task if **systematic** changes to some or all tokens in the task descriptions - while keeping the underlying logic intact - allow us to **predict** the direction of the shift in the model’s output. A strong token bias suggests that LLM is relying on superficial patterns in the input rather than truly understanding the underlying reasoning task, leading to brittle performance that fails to generalize well. Let us look at the following classic ["twenty-five horses" problem](https://mindyourdecisions.com/blog/2017/05/11/can-you-solve-the-25-horses-puzzle-google-interview-question/) in graph theory:

> You want to find the fastest 3 horses in a group of 25 horses. You can only race 5 horses at a time. You don’t have a stopwatch, so you can only know the ranking of each horse within each race. How many races do you need?

GPT-4 and Claude-3-opus achieve an accuracy of nearly 98.5\% and 40.5\% in answering this question. However, if we simply perturb **"horses"** to **"bunnies"**, **a change that shouldn't affect the logical essence**, would systematically decrease the accuracy to 85.0\% and 30.0\%, respectively. Further changing "25" to other values decreases their accuracy to 46.0\% and 24.0\%. These observations indicate strong token biases on the frequently-used names "horses" and "25" in such problems, and LLMs do not have a genuine understanding of how it should solve such problems.

> You want to find the fastest 3 bunnies in a group of 25 bunnies. You can only race 5 bunnies at a time. You don’t have a stopwatch, so you can only know the ranking of each bunny within each race. How many races do you need?

We take the classic [Linda Problem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy) in Psychology as another example. Below is the original problem statement.
> Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which is more probable?
>
> (a) Linda is a bank teller.
> 
> (b) Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

Experiments in behavioral psychology reveal that people typically believed the second option was more likely than the first, but this contradicts the basic probability rule of conjunction. Advanced LLMs like GPT-4 can typically recognize this fallacy well since it is a **classical problem that appears frequently** in cognitive science literature. However, altering **seemingly irrelevant tokens** like the name :ok_woman: "Linda" -> 🙆 "Luna" in the problem statement, while maintaining the same logical structure would surprisingly confuse most LLMs. In one-shot learning, GPT-4 and Claude-3-opus would see their accuracy decrease from 100.0\% to 72.0\% and from 95.0\% to 32.0\%, respectively. (check detailed experiment setups in [paper](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2406.11050)).

> Luna is 29 years old, married, deeply passionate about environmental conservation and transgender rights, and volunteers their weekends at local park clean-ups. They studied physics and applied math in college, and held several campaigns to reduce the campus’s carbon footprint. Which is more probable?
>
> (a) Luna is an assistant professor in aerospace engineering and is an active member of an environmental advocacy group.
> 
> (b) Luna is an assistant professor in aerospace engineering.

In our [paper](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2406.11050), we explore many other token biases in logical reasoning, set theory, and mathematical reasoning problems. We reconceptualize the evaluation of reasoning capabilities into a general and rigorous statistical testing framework, moving beyond accuracy. We conclude, with statistical guarantee, that **LLMs do not consistently apply genuine reasoning in their decision-making process, but primarily rely on token bias for response generation.** Therefore, we raise concerns about the extent to which LLMs truly engage in reasoning; Any robust evaluation of the LLM's generalization should account for the fundamental impact of token bias hidden in the current benchmark problems.

All images are generated by OpenAI GPT-4o. When we requested 'lop-eared bunnies', the model even displayed a visual token bias by generating bunnies with four ears — both lop and erect — suggesting it associated the term 'bunnies' with the presence of two erect ears without genuine logical understandings.

## Citation
**All the twenty-five bunnies above 🐰x25 will be happy if you could cite our work. Thank you!**

@article{jiang2024peek,
      title={A Peek into Token Bias: Large Language Models Are Not Yet Genuine Reasoners},
      author={Jiang, Bowen and Xie, Yangxinyu and Hao, Zhuoqun and Wang, Xiaomeng and Mallick, Tanwi and Su, Weijie J and Taylor, Camillo J and Roth, Dan},
      journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.11050},
      year={2024}
    }

## TODO
- [ ] Add the twenty-five horses problem to the paper
- [ ] Evaluate the new GPT-o1 reasoning model

## Dependencies
Please check [requirements.txt](requirements.txt). You can run the following commands to create a virtual environment and install all the requirements:
    
    python -m venv myenv
    source myenv/bin/activate
    pip install -r requirements.txt
    
## Dataset
We provide our synthetic dataset under [data/](data/), which contains a comprehensive set of logical-fallacy problems. The dataset file is in JSON format, and each item is a dictionary containing ```question_id```, ```question```, ```target_answer```, and ```incorrect_answer```. You can also follow the instructions below to generate more synthetic data on the fly.

## LLM Setups
:heart: Always set up **OpenAI ChatGPT** models. Please follow its [Developer quickstart](https://platform.openai.com/docs/quickstart?context=python) to set up your OpenAI API, create a new [api_tokens/openai_key.txt](api_tokens/openai_key.txt) file, and copy and paste your [API key](https://platform.openai.com/api-keys) into it.

:orange_heart: To use **Google Gemini** models with an API for inference, follow instructions on [Google Vertex AI](https://console.cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/publishers/google/model-garden/gemini-pro) about the ```Try Gemini 1.0 Pro (Python)``` section. Note that your school's Gmail account may not allow you to make payments.
- Step 1: According to their instructions, you need to first [install the Vertex AI client libraries](https://cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/docs/start/client-libraries#before_you_begin) to create a project with a project ID, enable Vertex AI API,  create a service account, and generate your account key. You don't need to set the environment variable ```GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS``` since we have already done that for you in our codes [query_llm.py](query_llm.py).
- Step 2: Install or update the [Vertex AI SDK for Python](https://cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/docs/python-sdk/use-vertex-ai-python-sdk?_gl=1*1qxspr1*_ga*OTIxODQ4MjQzLjE3MTQwNzMwNjI.*_ga_WH2QY8WWF5*MTcxNDE1NDc1Ni4yLjEuMTcxNDE2MDMzMi4wLjAuMA..&_ga=2.54138400.-921848243.1714073062).
- Step 3: Authenticate to Vertex AI and set up [Application Default Credentials](https://cloud.google.com/docs/authentication/provide-credentials-adc?&_ga=2.268814513.-1366866501.1708968072#local-dev).
  - Follow the ```Local development environment - Provide user credentials for your Google Account``` section to install and initialize the [gcloud CLI](https://cloud.google.com/sdk/docs/install). This step will download a folder ```google-cloud-sdk``` to your project's top directory.
  - After installation, run
    
        gcloud init
    
     to initialize the gcloud CLI. You will be able to choose your account and project ID. Create a new [api_tokens/gemini_project_id.txt](api_tokens/gemini_project_id.txt) file, and copy and paste your project ID into it.
  - To create your credential file, run
    
        gcloud auth application-default login
    
     You will see a prompt like ```Credentials saved to file: [/path/to/your/home/.config/gcloud/application_default_credentials.json]```.
  - Because of the path of the credential file we set in our [config.yaml](config.yaml), run
    
        mv /path/to/your/home/.config/gcloud/application_default_credentials.json google-cloud-sdk/google_gemini_credential.json

:yellow_heart: To use **Meta Llama** models with an API for inference, follow instructons on [Replicate Run Llama 3 with an API](https://replicate.com/blog/run-llama-3-with-an-api?utm_source=project&utm_campaign=llama2ai) about the ```Running Llama 3 with Python``` section to set up your [API tokens](https://replicate.com/account/api-tokens), create a new [api_tokens/llama_key.txt](api_tokens/llama_key.txt) file, and copy and paste your tokens into it.

:green_heart: To use **Anthropic Claude** models with an API for inference, follow its [Quickstart Guide](https://docs.anthropic.com/claude/docs/quickstart-guide) to install the Anthropic Python SDK, set up an account with API access, get your [API key](https://console.anthropic.com/settings/keys), create a new [api_tokens/claude_key.txt](api_tokens/claude_key.txt) file, and copy and paste your key into it. You don't need to set the environment variable ```ANTHROPIC_API_KEY```.

:blue_heart: To use **Mistral** models with an API for inference, follow its [Quickstart](https://docs.mistral.ai/getting-started/quickstart/) to install the mistralai library, set up an account with API access, get your [API key]([https://console.anthropic.com/settings/keys](https://console.mistral.ai/api-keys/), create a new [api_tokens/mistral_key.txt](api_tokens/mistral_key.txt) file, and copy and paste your key into it. You don't need to set the environment variable ```MISTRAL_API_KEY```.

## Quick Start
We allow command-line argparser for the following arguments:

- ```--model``` to select the LLM for inference. Last updated on 06-29-2024, but our codes should be compatible with any more recent model names. 
  
  - **OpenAI ChatGPT family.** Check [OpenAI's continuous model upgrades](https://platform.openai.com/docs/models/gpt-4-turbo-and-gpt-4).
    - ```gpt3.5``` or equivalently ```gpt-3.5-turbo```, ```gpt-3.5-turbo-0125```
    - ```gpt-3.5-turbo-1106```
    - ```gpt-3.5-turbo-0613```
    - ```gpt-4o```
    - ```gpt4``` or equivalently  ```gpt-4-turbo```, ```gpt-4-turbo-2024-04-09```
    - ```gpt-4-0125-preview```
    - ```gpt-4-1106-preview```
    - ```gpt-4-0613```
  - **Google Gemini family.** Check [Gemini model versions and lifecycle](https://cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/generative-ai/docs/learn/model-versioning#auto-updated-version). Note that Google currently imposes a relatively low [request-per-minute](https://ai.google.dev/gemini-api/docs/quota) for API usages, so you may encounter related errors when running the inference code.
    - ```gemini``` or equivalently ```gemini-1.0-pro```, ```gemini-1.0-pro-002```
    - ```gemini-1.0-pro-001```
    - ```gemini-1.5-pro-preview-0409```
  - **Meta Llama family**. Check [Choosing which model to use Llama-3](https://replicate.com/blog/run-llama-3-with-an-api?utm_source=project&utm_campaign=llama2ai#choosing-which-model-to-use) and [Llama-2](https://replicate.com/blog/run-llama-2-with-an-api#choosing-which-model-to-use).
    - ```llama``` or equivalently ```llama3-70b```, ```meta-llama-3-70b-instruct```
    - ```llama3-8b``` or equivalently ```meta-llama-3-8b-instruct```
    - ```llama-2-70b-chat```
    - ```llama-2-13b-chat```
    - ```llama-2-7b-chat```
  - **Anthropic Claude family**. Check [Models overview](https://docs.anthropic.com/claude/docs/models-overview).
    - ```claude``` or equivalently ```claude-3-opus-20240229```
    - ```claude-3-sonnet-20240229```
    - ```claude-3-haiku-20240307```
  - **Mistral family**. Check [API versioning](https://docs.mistral.ai/getting-started/models/#api-versioning).
    - ```mistral``` or equivalently ```mistral-large-latest```, ```mistral-large-2402```
    - ```mistral-medium-latest``` or equivalently ```mistral-medium-2312```
    - ```mistral-small-latest``` or equivalently ```mistral-small-2402```
    - ```open-mixtral-8x22b``` or equivalently ```open-mixtral-8x22b-2404```
    - ```open-mixtral-8x7b``` or equivalently ```mistral-small-2312```
    - ```open-mistral-7b``` or equivalently ```mistral-tiny-2312```

- ```--task``` to specify ```data``` to generate synthetic datasets or ```inference``` to evaluate the LLM's ability to answer the questions.

- ```--verbose``` to print detailed data information and model responses during the inference.

- ***\[For Data Generation Only\]*** ```--fallacy``` to select the type of logical fallacy. We currently support ```linda``` for the Linda Problem and its variants and ```sets``` for the syllogistic problems.

- ***\[For Data Generation Only\]*** ```--gen_mode``` to select the mode of generating synthetic dataset when ```task``` is ```data```. Options are ```baseline```: simple in-context learning with limited instructions, ```control```: step-by-step guidance to generate both gold samples and random samples with irrelevant info.

- ***\[For Data Generation Only\]*** ```--variant``` to select the variant of the Linda problems, such as the default ```original```, ```variant_one```, ```variant_two```, ..., ```variant_six```. Detailed information about each variant can be found in the ```def linda_problem()``` function in [prompts.py](prompts.py). Include this argument iff ```--fallacy``` is ```linda```.

- ***\[For Data Generation Only\]*** ```--conn``` to select the logical connecting word, such as ```because```, ```sothat```, or ```to``` to generate new data. Add this argument iff ```--fallacy``` is ```linda``` and ```--variant``` is ```variant_one``` or ```variant_two```.

- ***\[For Data Generation Only\]*** ```--n``` to set the number of synthetic data problems to generate.

- ***\[For Inference Only\]*** ```--data_file``` to set the data file path for inference.

- ***\[For Inference Only\]*** ```--eval_mode``` to set the evaluation mode for the model to answer questions. Options are 
  - ```baseline``` for directly prompting
  - ```zs_cot``` for zero-shot chain-of-thought (CoT) prompting
  - ```os``` for one-shot in-context learning (ICL) prompting with the original Linda Problem (default)
  - ```os_cot``` for one-shot ICL plus COT prompting
  - ```os_bob``` for one-shot ICL prompting but with a rephrased Bob Problem
  - ```os_bob_cot``` for one-shot ICL prompting plus COT but with a rephrased Bob Problem
  - ```os_incorrect``` for one-shot ICL but with an incorrect answer and a rephrased Bob Problem
  - ```os_incorrect_cot``` for one-shot ICL plus COT but with an incorrect answer and a rephrased Bob Problem
  - ```fs``` for few-shot ICL prompting
  - ```fs_cot``` for few-shot ICL plus COT prompting
  - ```weak_control_zs_cot``` for weakly controlled zero-shot CoT prompting, leaking the hint that it is a Linda Problem but without detailed instructions
  - ```weak_control_os_cot``` for weakly controlled one-shot CoT prompting, leaking the hint that it is a Linda Problem but without detailed instructions
  - ```control_zs_cot``` for controlled zero-shot CoT prompting, leaking the hint that it is a Linda Problem with detailed and carefully-curated instructions
  - ```control_os_cot``` for controlled one-shot CoT prompting, leaking the hint that it is a Linda Problem with detailed and carefully-curated instructions

For example, you can run

python main.py --model gpt3.5 --task data --fallacy linda --gen_mode control --variant original --n 100 --verbose

in the command line and adjust ```model```, ```fallacy```, ```gen_mode```, ```variant```, and ```n``` accordingly. All the other hyper-parameters can be set at [config.yaml](config.yaml). 
Generated files will be saved to the [data/](data/) directory.

**To start the inference**

python main.py --model gpt3.5 --task inference --fallacy linda --eval_mode os_cot --data_file synthetic_dataset_linda_original_gold.json --verbose

in the command line and adjust ```model```, ```eval_mode```, and ```data_file``` accordingly.

To efficiently run the evaluation with multiple prompting methods, models, and/or data files in parallel, please modify the number of GPU devices available and adjust the codes in ``run.sh``. Then run

bash run.sh

All results and final accuracies will be automatically saved to the [outputs/](outputs/) directory.

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